In this research direction, optical and electrochemical sensing principles are integrated for the realization of a sensing device. This includes nanoemulsions embedded in a hydrogel to separate out colloidal sample components. Paper channels decorated with appropriate sensing chemistry can be used for a distance-based, instrument-free readout. Optical sensing particles are read out in a massively serial manner by flow cytometry. Devices based on thin sample layer coulometry aim to avoid the need for recalibration. Flow devices are designed to selectively acidify, alkalanize or desalinate the sample for integrated analysis.